Glossary

Use the letters below to browse.

1. ABCP

   see asset-backed commercial paper.

2. ABS

   see asset-backed security.

3. ABX.HE

   A series of derivatives indices constructed from the prices of 20 credit default swaps that each reference individual subprime mortgage-backed securities; akin to an index like the Dow Jones Industrial Average.

4. adjustable-rate mortgage

   A mortgage whose interest rate changes periodically over time.

5. affordable housing goals

   Goals originally set by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (now by the Federal Housing Finance Agency) for Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac to allocate a specified part of their mortgage business to serve low- and moderate-income borrowers.

6. ARM

   see adjustable-rate mortgage.

7. ARS

   see auction rate securities.

8. asset-backed commercial paper

   Short-term debt secured by assets.

9. asset-backed security

   Debt instrument secured by assets such as mortgages, credit card loans or auto loans.

10. auction rate securities

    Long-term bonds whose interest rate may be reset at regular short-term intervals by an auction process.

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12. bank holding company

    Company that controls a bank.

13. broker-dealer

    A firm, often the subsidiary of an investment bank, that buys and sells securities for itself and others.

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15. capital

    Assets minus liabilities; what a firm owns minus what it owes. Regulators often require financial firms to hold minimum levels of capital.

16. Capital Purchase Program

    TARP program providing financial assistance to 700-plus U.S. financial institutions through the purchase of senior preferred shares in the corporations on standardized terms.

17. CDO

    see collateralized debt obligation.

18. CDO squared

    CDO that holds other CDOs.

19. CDS

    see credit default swap.

20. CFTC

    see Commodity Futures Trading Commission.

21. collateralized debt obligation

    Type of security often composed of the riskier portions of mortgage-backed securities.

22. commercial paper

    Short-term unsecured corporate debt.

23. Commercial Paper Funding Facility

    Emergency program created by the Federal Reserve in 2008 to purchase three-month unsecured and asset-backed commercial paper from eligible companies.

24. Commodity Futures Trading Commission

    Independent federal agency that regulates trading in futures and options.

25. Community Reinvestment Act

    1977 federal law encouraging depository institutions to make loans and provide services in the local communities in which they take deposits.

26. Consolidated Supervised Entities program

    A Securities and Exchange Commission program created in 2004 and terminated in 2008 that provided voluntary supervision for the five largest investment bank conglomerates.

27. counterparty

    A party to a contract.

28. CP

    see commercial paper.

29. CPP

    see Capital Purchase Program.

30. CRA

    see Community Reinvestment Act.

31. credit default swap

    A type of credit derivative allowing a purchaser of the swap to transfer loan default risk to a seller of the swap. The seller agrees to pay the purchaser if a default event occurs. The purchaser does not need to own the loan covered by the swap.

32. credit enhancement

    Insurance or other protection that may be purchased for a loan or pool of loans to offset losses in the event of default.

33. credit loss

    Loss from delayed payments or defaults on loans.

34. credit rating agency

    Private company that evaluates the credit quality of securities and provides ratings on those securities; the largest are Fitch Ratings, Moody's Investors Service, and Standard & Poor's.

35. credit risk

    Risk to a lender that a borrower will fail to repay the loan.

36. CSE

    Consolidated Supervised Entity (see Consolidated Supervised Entities program).

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38. debt-to-income ratio

    One measure of a borrower's ability to repay a loan, generally calculated by dividing the borrower's monthly debt payments by gross monthly income.

39. delinquency rate

    The number of loans for which borrowers fail to make timely loan payments divided by total loans.

40. Department of Housing and Urban Development

    Cabinet-level federal department responsible for housing policies and programs.

41. Department of Justice

    Cabinet-level federal department responsible for enforcement of laws and administration of justice, led by the attorney general.

42. Department of Treasury

    Treasury of the federal government; prints and mints all currency and coins, collects federal taxes, manages U.S. government debt instruments, supervises national banks and thrifts, and advises on domestic and international fiscal policy. Its mission includes protecting the integrity of the financial system.

43. depository institution

    Financial institution, such as a commercial bank, thrift (savings and loan), or credit union, that accepts deposits, including deposits insured by the FDIC.

44. derivative

    Financial contract whose price is determined (derived) from the value of an underlying asset, rate, index, or event.

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46. Fannie Mae

    Nickname for the Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA), a government-sponsored enterprise providing financing for the home mortgage market.

47. FCIC

    Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission.

48. FDIC

    see Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation.

49. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

    Independent federal agency charged primarily with insuring deposits at financial institutions, examining and supervising some of those institutions, and shutting down failing institutions.

50. Federal Housing Administration

    Part of the Department of Housing and Urban Development that provides insurance on mortgage loans made by FHA-approved lenders.

51. Federal Housing Finance Agency

    Independent federal regulator of government-sponsored enterprises; created by the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 as successor to the Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight and the Federal Housing Finance Board.

52. Federal Open Market Committee

    Its members are the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and certain of the presidents of the Federal Reserve Banks; oversees market conditions and implements monetary policy through such means as setting interest rates.

53. Federal Reserve Bank of New York

    One of 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks, with responsibility for regulating bank holding companies in New York State and nearby areas.

54. Federal Reserve

    U.S. central banking system created in 1913 in response to financial panics, consisting of the Federal Reserve Board in Washington, DC, and 12 Federal Reserve Banks around the country; its mission is to implement monetary policy through such means as setting interest rates, supervising and regulating banking institutions, maintaining the stability of the financial system, and providing financial services to depository institutions.

55. FHA

    see Federal Housing Administration.

56. FHFA

    see Federal Housing Finance Agency.

57. FICO score

    A measure of a borrower's creditworthiness based on the borrower's credit data; developed by the Fair Isaac Corporation.

58. Financial Crimes Enforcement Network

    Treasury office that collects and analyzes information about financial transactions to combat money laundering, terrorist financing, and other financial crimes.

59. FinCEN

    see Financial Crimes Enforcement Network.

60. FOMC

    see Federal Open Market Committee.

61. foreclosure

    Legal process whereby a mortgage lender gains ownership of the real property securing a defaulted mortgage.

62. Freddie Mac

    Nickname for the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC), a government-sponsored enterprise providing financing for the home mortgage market.

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64. Ginnie Mae

    Nickname for the Government National Mortgage Association (GNMA), a government-sponsored enterprise; guarantees pools of VA and FHA mortgages.

65. Glass-Steagall Act

    Banking Act of 1933 creating the FDIC to insure bank deposits; prohibited commercial banks from underwriting or dealing in most types of securities, barred banks from affiliating with securities firms, and introduced other banking reforms. In 1999, the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act repealed the provisions of the Glass-Steagall Act that prohibited affiliations between banks and securities firms.

66. government-sponsored enterprise

    A private corporation, such as Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, created by the federal government to pursue certain public policy goals designated in its charter.

67. Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act

    1999 legislation that lifted certain remaining restrictions established by the Glass-Steagall Act.

68. GSE

    see government-sponsored enterprise.

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70. haircut

    The difference between the value of an asset and the amount borrowed against it.

71. hedge

    In finance, a way to reduce exposure or risk by taking on a new financial contract.

72. hedge fund

    A privately offered investment vehicle exempted from most regulation and oversight; generally open only to high-net-worth investors.

73. HOEPA

    see Home Ownership and Equity Protection Act.

74. Home Ownership and Equity Protection Act

    1994 federal law that gave the Federal Reserve new responsibility to address abusive and predatory mortgage lending practices.

75. Housing and Economic Recovery Act

    2008 law including measures to reform and regulate the GSEs; created the Federal Housing Finance Agency.

76. HUD

    see Department of Housing and Urban Development.

77. hybrid CDO

    A CDO backed by collateral found in both cash CDOs and synthetic CDOs.

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79. illiquid assets

    Assets that cannot be easily or quickly sold.

80. interest-only loan

    Loan that allows borrowers to pay interest without repaying principal until the end of the loan term.

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82. leverage

    A measure of how much debt is used to purchase assets; for example, a leverage ratio of 5:1 means that $5 of assets were purchased with $4 of debt and $1 of capital.

83. LIBOR

    London Interbank Offered Rate, an interest rate at which banks are willing to lend to each other in the London interbank market.

84. liquidity

    Holding cash and/or assets that can be quickly and easily converted to cash.

85. liquidity put

    A contract allowing one party to compel the other to buy an asset under certain circumstances. It ensures that there will be a buyer for otherwise illiquid assets.

86. loan-to-value ratio

    Ratio of the amount of a mortgage to the value of the house, typically expressed as a percentage. "Combined" loan-to-value includes all debt secured by the house, including second mortgages.

87. LTV ratio

    see loan-to-value ratio.

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89. mark-to-market

    The process by which the reported amount of an asset is adjusted to reflect the market value.

90. monoline

    Insurance company, such as AMBAC and MBIA, whose single line of business is to guarantee financial products.

91. mortgage servicer

    Company that acts as an agent for mortgage holders, collecting and distributing payments from borrowers and handling defaults, modifications, settlements, and foreclosure proceedings.

92. mortgage underwriting

    Process of evaluating the credit characteristics of a mortgage and borrower.

93. mortgage-backed security

    Debt instrument secured by a pool of mortgages, whether residential or commercial.

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95. NAV

    see net asset value.

96. negative amortization loan

    Loan that allows a borrower to make monthly payments that do not fully cover the interest payment, with the unpaid interest added to the principal of the loan.

97. net asset value

    Value of an asset minus any associated costs; for financial assets, typically changes each trading day.

98. net charge-off rate

    Ratio of loan losses to total loans.

99. non-agency mortgage-backed securities

    Mortgage-backed securities sponsored by private companies other than a government-sponsored enterprise (such as Fannie Mae or Freddie Mac); also known as private-label mortgage-backed securities.

100. notional amount

     A measure of the outstanding amount of over-the-counter derivatives contracts, based on the amount of the underlying referenced assets.

101. novation

     A process by which counterparties may transfer derivatives positions.

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103. OCC

     see Office of the Comptroller of the Currency.

104. Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight

     Created in 1992 to oversee financial soundness of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac; its responsibilities were assumed in 2008 by its successor, the Federal Housing Finance Agency.

105. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency

     Independent bureau within Department of Treasury that charters, regulates, and supervises all national banks and certain branches and agencies of foreign banks in the United States.

106. Office of Thrift Supervision

     Independent bureau within Treasury that regulates all federally chartered and many state-chartered savings and loans/thrift institutions and their holding companies.

107. OFHEO

     see Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight.

108. originate-to-distribute

     When lenders make loans with the intention of selling them to other financial institutions or investors, as opposed to holding the loans through maturity.

109. originate-to-hold

     When lenders make loans with the intention of holding them through maturity, as opposed to selling them to other financial institutions or investors.

110. origination

     Process of making a loan, including underwriting, closing, and providing the funds.

111. OTS

     see Office of Thrift Supervision.

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113. par

     Face value of a bond.

114. payment-option adjustable-rate mortgage

     (also called payment ARM or option ARM) Mortgages that allow borrowers to pick the amount of payment each month, possibly low enough to increase the principal balance.

115. PDCF

     see Primary Dealer Credit Facility.

116. PLS

     see private-label mortgage-backed securities.

117. pooling

     Combining and packaging a group of loans to be held by a single entity.

118. Primary Dealer Credit Facility

     Program established by the Federal Reserve in March 2008 that allowed eligible companies to borrow cash overnight to finance their securities.

119. principal

     Amount borrowed.

120. private mortgage insurance

     Insurance on the payment of a mortgage provided by a private firm at additional cost to the borrower to protect the lender.

121. private-label mortgage-backed securities

     see non-agency mortgage-backed securities.

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123. repurchase agreement (repo)

     A method of secured lending where the borrower sells securities to the lender as collateral and agrees to repurchase them at a higher price within a short period, often within one day.

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125. SEC

     see Securities and Exchange Commission.

126. section 13(3)

     Section of the Federal Reserve Act under which the Federal Reserve may make secured loans to nondepository institutions, such as investment banks, under "unusual and exigent" circumstances.

127. Securities and Exchange Commission

     Independent federal agency responsible for protecting investors by enforcing federal securities laws, including regulating stock and security options exchanges and other electronic securities markets, the issuance and sale of securities, broker-dealers, other securities professionals, and investment companies.

128. securitization

     Process of pooling debt assets such as mortgages, car loans, and credit card debt into a separate legal entity that then issues a new financial instrument or security for sale to investors.

129. shadow banking

     Financial institutions and activities that in some respects parallel banking activities but are subject to less regulation than commercial banks. Institutions include mutual funds, investment banks, and hedge funds.

130. short sale

     The sale of a home for less than the amount owed on the mortgage.

131. short selling

     To sell a borrowed security in the expectation of a decline in value.

132. SIV

     see structured investment vehicle.

133. special purpose vehicle

     Entity created to fulfill a narrow or temporary objective; typically holds a portfolio of assets such as mortgage-backed securities or other debt obligations; often used because of regulatory and bankruptcy advantages.

134. SPV

     see special purpose vehicle.

135. structured investment vehicle

     Leveraged special purpose vehicle, funded through medium-term notes and asset-backed commercial paper, that invested in highly rated securities.

136. synthetic CDO

     A CDO that holds credit default swaps that reference assets (rather than holding cash assets), allowing investors to make bets for or against those referenced assets.

137. systemic risk

     In financial terms, that which poses a threat to the financial system.

138. systemic risk exception

     Clause in the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act (FDICIA) under which the FDIC may commit its funds to rescue a financial institution.

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140. TAF

     see Term Auction Facility.

141. TALF

     see Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility.

142. TARP

     see Troubled Asset Relief Program.

143. Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility

     Federal Reserve program, supported by TARP funds, to aid securitization of asset-based loans such as auto loans, student loans, and small business loans.

144. Term Auction Facility

     Program in which the Federal Reserve made funds available to all depository institutions at once through a regular auction.

145. Term Securities Lending Facility

     Emergency program in which the Federal Reserve made up to $200 billion in Treasury securities available to banks or broker/dealers that traded directly with the Federal Reserve.

146. tranche

     From the French, meaning a slice; used to refer to the different types of mortgage-backed securities and CDO bonds that provide specified priorities and amounts of returns: "senior" tranches have the highest priority of returns and therefore the lowest risk/interest rate; mezzanine tranches have mid levels of risk/return; and "equity" (also known as "residual" or "first loss") tranches typically receive any remaining cash flows.

147. Troubled Asset Relief Program

     Government program to address the financial crisis, signed into law in October 2008 to purchase or insure up to $700 billion in assets and equity from financial and other institutions.

148. TSLF

     see Term Securities Lending Facility.

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150. undercapitalized

     Condition in which a business does not have enough capital to meet its needs, or to meet its capital requirements if it is a regulated entity.

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152. write-downs

     Reducing the value of an asset as it is carried on a firm's balance sheet because the market value has fallen.